23
Nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons have become
potential realities on any modern battlefield. Recent
experience in Afghanistan, Cambodia, and other areas of
conflict has proved the use of chemical and biological
weapons (such as mycotoxins). The warfighting doctrine of
the NATO and Warsaw Pact nations addresses the use of both
nuclear and chemical weapons. The potential use of these
weapons intensifies the problems of survival because of the
serious dangers posed by either radioactive fallout or
contamination produced by persistent biological or
chemical agents.
You must use special precautions if you expect to survive
in these man-made hazards. If you are subjected to any
of the effects of nuclear, chemical, or biological warfare,
the survival procedures recommended in this chapter may
save your life. This chapter presents some background
information on each type of hazard so that you may better
understand the true nature of the hazard. Awareness of the
hazards, knowledge of this chapter, and application of
common sense should keep you alive.
Prepare yourself to survive in a nuclear environment. Know how to react
to a nuclear hazard.
Effects of Nuclear Weapons
The effects of nuclear weapons are classified as either initial or
residual. Initial effects occur in the immediate area of the explosion
and are hazardous in the first minute after the explosion. Residual
effects can last for days or years and cause death. The principal initial
effects are blast and radiation.
Blast
Defined as the brief and rapid movement of air away from the explosion’s
center and the pressure accompanying this movement. Strong
winds accompany the blast. Blast hurls debris and personnel, collapses
lungs, ruptures eardrums, collapses structures and positions, and causes
immediate death or injury with its crushing effect.
Thermal Radiation
The heat and light radiation a nuclear explosion’s fireball emits.
Light radiation consists of both visible light and ultraviolet and
infrared light. Thermal radiation produces extensive fires, skin burns,
and flash blindness.
Nuclear Radiation
Nuclear radiation breaks down into two categories-initial radiation and
residual radiation.
Initial nuclear radiation consists of intense gamma rays and neutrons
produced during the first minute after the explosion. This radiation
causes extensive damage to cells throughout the body. Radiation
damage may cause headaches, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and even
death, depending on the radiation dose received. The major problem
in protecting yourself against the initial radiation’s effects is that
you may have received a lethal or incapacitating dose before taking
any protective action. Personnel exposed to lethal amounts of initial
radiation may well have been killed or fatally injured by blast or
thermal radiation.
Residual radiation consists of all radiation produced after one minute
from the explosion. It has more effect on you than initial radiation.
A discussion of residual radiation takes place in a subsequent
paragraph.
Types of Nuclear Bursts
There are three types of nuclear bursts—airburst, surface burst, and
subsurface burst. The type of burst directly affects your chances of
survival. A subsurface burst occurs completely underground or underwater.
Its effects remain beneath the surface or in the immediate area where
the surface collapses into a crater over the burst’s location. Subsurface
bursts cause you little or no radioactive hazard unless you enter the
immediate area of the crater. No further discussion of this type of burst
will take place.
An airburst occurs in the air above its intended target. The airburst
provides the maximum radiation effect on the target and is, therefore,
most dangerous to you in terms of immediate nuclear effects.
A surface burst occurs on the ground or water surface. Large amounts
of fallout result, with serious long-term effects for you. This type of
burst is your greatest nuclear hazard.
Nuclear Injuries
Most injuries in the nuclear environment result from the initial nuclear
effects of the detonation. These injuries are classed as blast,
thermal, or radiation injuries. Further radiation injuries may occur
if you do not take proper precautions against fallout. Individuals in
the area near a nuclear explosion will probably suffer a combination
of all three types of injuries.
Blast Injuries
Blast injuries produced by nuclear weapons are similar to those caused
by conventional high-explosive weapons. Blast overpressure can produce
collapsed lungs and ruptured internal organs. Projectile wounds occur as
the explosion’s force hurls debris at you. Large pieces of debris striking
you will cause fractured limbs or massive internal injuries. Blast
overpressure may throw you long distances, and you will suffer severe injury
upon impact with the ground or other objects. Substantial cover and
distance from the explosion are the best protection against blast injury.
Cover blast injury wounds as soon as possible to prevent the entry of
radioactive dust particles.
Thermal Injuries
The heat and light the nuclear fireball emits causes thermal injuries.
First-, second-, or third-degree burns may result. Flash blindness also
occurs. This blindness may be permanent or temporary depending on
the degree of exposure of the eyes. Substantial cover and distance
from the explosion can prevent thermal injuries. Clothing will provide
significant protection against thermal injuries. Cover as much exposed
skin as possible before a nuclear explosion. First aid for thermal
injuries is the same as first aid for burns. Cover open burns (second- or
third-degree) to prevent the entry of radioactive particles. Wash all
burns before covering.
Radiation Injuries
Neutrons, gamma radiation, alpha radiation, and beta radiation cause
radiation injuries. Neutrons are high-speed, extremely penetrating
particles that actually smash cells within your body. Gamma radiation is
similar to X rays and is also a highly penetrating radiation. During the
initial fireball stage of a nuclear detonation, initial gamma radiation and
neutrons are the most serious threat. Beta and alpha radiation are radioactive
particles normally associated with radioactive dust from fallout.
They are short-range particles and you can easily protect yourself against
them if you take precautions. See Bodily Reactions to Radiation, below,
for the symptoms of radiation injuries.
Residual Radiation
Residual radiation is all radiation emitted after 1 minute from the
instant of the nuclear explosion. Residual radiation consists of induced
radiation and fallout.
Induced Radiation
It describes a relatively small, intensely radioactive area directly
underneath the nuclear weapon’s fireball. The irradiated earth in this
area will remain highly radioactive for an extremely long time. You
should not travel into an area of induced radiation.
Fallout
Fallout consists of radioactive soil and water particles, as well as
weapon fragments. During a surface detonation, or if an airburst’s
nuclear fireball touches the ground, large amounts of soil and water
are vaporized along with the bomb’s fragments, and forced upward to
altitudes of 25,000 meters or more. When these vaporized contents
cool, they can form more than 200 different radioactive products. The
vaporized bomb contents condense into tiny radioactive particles that
the wind carries and they fall back to earth as radioactive dust. Fallout
particles emit alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Alpha and beta radiation
are relatively easy to counteract, and residual gamma radiation
is much less intense than the gamma radiation emitted during the first
minute after the explosion. Fallout is your most significant radiation
hazard, provided you have not received a lethal radiation dose from
the initial radiation.
Bodily Reactions to Radiation
The effects of radiation on the human body can be broadly classed as
either chronic or acute. Chronic effects are those that occur some years
after exposure to radiation. Examples are cancer and genetic defects.
Chronic effects are of minor concern insofar as they affect your
immediate survival in a radioactive environment. On the other hand, acute
effects are of primary importance to your survival. Some acute effects
occur within hours after exposure to radiation. These effects result from
the radiation’s direct physical damage to tissue. Radiation sickness and
beta burns are examples of acute effects. Radiation sickness symptoms
include nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, fatigue, weakness, and loss of hair.
Penetrating beta rays cause radiation burns; the wounds are similar to
fire burns.
Recovery Capability
The extent of body damage depends mainly on the part of the body
exposed to radiation and how long it was exposed, as well as its ability
to recover. The brain and kidneys have little recovery capability. Other
parts (skin and bone marrow) have a great ability to recover from damage.
Usually, a dose of 600 centigrams (cgys) to the entire body will result
in almost certain death. If only your hands received this same dose, your
overall health would not suffer much, although your hands would suffer
severe damage.
External and Internal Hazards
An external or an internal hazard can cause body damage. Highly
penetrating gamma radiation or the less penetrating beta radiation that
causes burns can cause external damage. The entry of alpha or beta
radiation-emitting particles into the body can cause internal damage.
The external hazard produces overall irradiation and beta burns. The
internal hazard results in irradiation of critical organs such as the
gastrointestinal tract, thyroid gland, and bone. A very small amount
of radioactive material can cause extreme damage to these and other
internal organs. The internal hazard can enter the body either through
consumption of contaminated water or food or by absorption through
cuts or abrasions. Material that enters the body through breathing
presents only a minor hazard. You can greatly reduce the internal
radiation hazard by using good personal hygiene and carefully
decontaminating your food and water.
Symptoms
The symptoms of radiation injuries include nausea, diarrhea, and vomiting.
The severity of these symptoms is due to the extreme sensitivity of
the gastrointestinal tract to radiation. The severity of the symptoms and
the speed of onset after exposure are good indicators of the degree of
radiation damage. The gastrointestinal damage can come from either
the external or the internal radiation hazard.
Knowledge of the radiation hazards discussed earlier is extremely
important in surviving in a fallout area. It is also critical to know how
to protect yourself from the most dangerous form of residual radiation—
penetrating external radiation.
The means you can use to protect yourself from penetrating external
radiation are time, distance, and shielding. You can reduce the level of
radiation and help increase your chance of survival by controlling the
duration of exposure. You can also get as far away from the radiation
source as possible. Finally you can place some radiation-absorbing or
shielding material between you and the radiation.
Time
Time is important to you, as the survivor, in two ways. First, radiation
dosages are cumulative. The longer you are exposed to a radioactive
source, the greater the dose you will receive. Obviously, spend as little
time in a radioactive area as possible. Second, radioactivity decreases or
decays over time. This concept is known as radioactive half-life. Thus,
a radioactive element decays or loses half of its radioactivity within
a certain time. The rule of thumb for radioactivity decay is that it
decreases in intensity by a factor of ten for every sevenfold increase
in time following the peak radiation level. For example, if a nuclear
fallout area had a maximum radiation rate of 200 cgys per hour when
fallout is complete, this rate would fall to 20 cgys per hour after
7 hours; it would fall still further to 2 cgys per hour after 49 hours.
Even an untrained observer can see that the greatest hazard from
fallout occurs immediately after detonation, and that the hazard decreases
quickly over a relatively short time. As a survivor, try to avoid
fallout areas until the radioactivity decays to safe levels. If you can
avoid fallout areas long enough for most of the radioactivity to decay,
you enhance your chance of survival.
Distance
Distance provides very effective protection against penetrating gamma
radiation because radiation intensity decreases by the square of the
distance from the source. For example, if exposed to 1,000 cgys of radiation
standing 30 centimeters from the source, at 60 centimeters, you would
only receive 250 cgys. Thus, when you double the distance, radiation
decreases to (0.5)² or 0.25 the amount. While this formula is valid for
concentrated sources of radiation in small areas, it becomes more
complicated for large areas of radiation such as fallout areas.
Shielding
Shielding is the most important method of protection from penetrating
radiation. Of the three countermeasures against penetrating radiation,
shielding provides the greatest protection and is the easiest to use
under survival conditions. Therefore, it is the most desirable method.
If shielding is not possible, use the other two methods to the maximum
extent practical.
Shielding actually works by absorbing or weakening the penetrating
radiation, thereby reducing the amount of radiation reaching your body.
The denser the material, the better the shielding effect. Lead, iron,
concrete, and water are good examples of shielding materials.
Special Medical Aspects
The presence of fallout material in your area requires slight changes in
first aid procedures. You must cover all wounds to prevent contamination
and the entry of radioactive particles. You must first wash burns of
beta radiation, then treat them as ordinary burns. Take extra measures
to prevent infection. Your body will be extremely sensitive to infections
due to changes in your blood chemistry. Pay close attention to the
prevention of colds or respiratory infections. Rigorously practice personal
hygiene to prevent infections. Cover your eyes with improvised goggles
to prevent the entry of particles.
Shelter
As stated earlier, the shielding material’s effectiveness depends on its
thickness and density. An ample thickness of shielding material will
reduce the level of radiation to negligible amounts.
The primary reason for finding and building a shelter is to get protection
against the high-intensity radiation levels of early gamma fallout as fast
as possible. Five minutes to locate the shelter is a good guide. Speed
in finding shelter is absolutely essential. Without shelter, the dosage
received in the first few hours will exceed that received during the rest of
a week in a contaminated area. The dosage received in this first week
will exceed the dosage accumulated during the rest of a lifetime spent in
the same contaminated area.
Shielding Materials
The thickness required to weaken gamma radiation from fallout is far
less than that needed to shield against initial gamma radiation. Fallout
radiation has less energy than a nuclear detonation’s initial radiation.
For fallout radiation, a relatively small amount of shielding material can
provide adequate protection. Figure 23-1 gives an idea of the thickness
of various materials needed to reduce residual gamma radiation transmission
by 50 percent.
The principle of half-value layer thickness is useful in understanding the
absorption of gamma radiation by various materials. According to this
principle, if 5 centimeters of brick reduce the gamma radiation level by
one-half, adding another 5 centimeters of brick (another half-value
layer) will reduce the intensity by another half, namely, to one-fourth
the original amount. Fifteen centimeters will reduce gamma radiation
fallout levels to one-eighth its original amount, 20 centimeters to
one-sixteenth, and so on. Thus, a shelter protected by 1 meter of dirt
would reduce a radiation intensity of 1,000 cgys per hour on the outside
to about 0.5 cgy per hour inside the shelter.
Natural Shelters
Terrain that provides natural shielding and easy shelter construction is
the ideal location for an emergency shelter. Good examples are ditches,
ravines, rocky outcropping, hills, and river banks. In level areas without
natural protection, dig a fighting position or slit trench.
Trenches
When digging a trench, work from inside the trench as soon as it is large
enough to cover part of your body thereby not exposing all your body to
radiation. In open country, try to dig the trench from a prone position,
stacking the dirt carefully and evenly around the trench. On level
ground, pile the dirt around your body for additional shielding. Depending
upon soil conditions, shelter construction time will vary from a few
minutes to a few hours. If you dig as quickly as possible, you will reduce
the dosage you receive.
Other Shelters
While an underground shelter covered by 1 meter or more of earth provides
the best protection against fallout radiation, the following unoccupied
structures (in order listed) offer the next best protection:
-Caves and tunnels covered by more than 1 meter of earth.
-Storm or storage cellars.
-Culverts.
-Basements or cellars of abandoned buildings.
-Abandoned buildings made of stone or mud.
Roofs
It is not mandatory that you build a roof on your shelter. Build one
only if the materials are readily available with only a brief exposure
to outside contamination. If building a roof would require extended
exposure to penetrating radiation, it would be wiser to leave the shelter
roofless. A roof’s sole function is to reduce radiation from the fallout
source to your body. Unless you use a thick roof, a roof provides very
little shielding.
You can construct a simple roof from a poncho anchored down with dirt,
rocks, or other refuse from your shelter. You can remove large particles
of dirt and debris from the top of the poncho by beating it off from the
inside at frequent intervals. This cover will not offer shielding from the
radioactive particles deposited on the surface, but it will increase the
distance from the fallout source and keep the shelter area from further
contamination.
Shelter Site Selection and Preparation
To reduce your exposure time and thereby reduce the dosage received,
remember the following factors when selecting and setting up a shelter:
-Where possible, seek a crude, existing shelter that you can improve.
If none is available, dig a trench.
-Dig the shelter deep enough to get good protection, then enlarge it
as required for comfort.
-Cover the top of the fighting position or trench with any readily
available material and a thick layer of earth, if you can do so without
leaving the shelter. While a roof and camouflage are both desirable,
it is probably safer to do without them than to expose yourself to
radiation outside your fighting position.
-While building your shelter, keep all parts of your body covered with
clothing to protect it against beta burns.
-Clean the shelter site of any surface deposit using a branch or other
object that you can discard. Do this cleaning to remove contaminated
materials from the area you will occupy. The cleaned area should
extend at least 1.5 meters beyond your shelter’s area.
-Decontaminate any materials you bring into the shelter. These materials
include grass or foliage that you use as insulation or bedding,
and your outer clothing (especially footgear). If the weather permits
and you have heavily contaminated outer clothing, you may want to
remove it and bury it under a foot of earth at the end of your shelter.
You may retrieve it later (after the radioactivity decays) when
leaving the shelter. If the clothing is dry, you may decontaminate it
by beating or shaking it outside the shelter’s entrance to remove the
radioactive dust. You may use any body of water, even though
contaminated, to rid materials of excess fallout particles. Simply dip the
material into the water and shake it to get rid of the excess water.
Do not wring it out, this action will trap the particles.
-If at all possible and without leaving the shelter, wash your body
thoroughly with soap and water, even if the water on hand may be
contaminated. This washing will remove most of the harmful radioactive
particles that are likely to cause beta burns or other damage.
If water is not available, wipe your face and any other exposed skin
surface to remove contaminanted dust and dirt. You may wipe your
face with a clean piece of cloth or a handful of uncontaminated dirt.
You get this uncontaminated dirt by scraping off the top few inches
of soil and using the “clean” dirt.
-Upon completing the shelter, lie down, keep warm, and sleep and
rest as much as possible while in the shelter.
-When not resting, keep busy by planning future actions, studying
your maps, or making the shelter more comfortable and effective.
-Don’t panic if you experience nausea and symptoms of radiation sickness.
Your main danger from radiation sickness is infection. There is
no first aid for this sickness. Resting, drinking fluids, taking any
medicine that prevents vomiting, maintaining your food intake, and
preventing additional exposure will help avoid infection and aid
recovery. Even small doses of radiation can cause these symptoms
which may disappear in a short time.
Exposure Timetable
The following timetable provides you with the information needed
to avoid receiving serious dosage and still let you cope with survival
problems:
-Complete isolation from 4 to 6 days following delivery of the last
weapon.
-A very brief exposure to procure water on the third day is permissible,
but exposure should not exceed 30 minutes.
-One exposure of not more than 30 minutes on the seventh day.
-One exposure of not more than 1 hour on the eighth day.
-Exposure of 2 to 4 hours from the ninth day through the twelfth
day.
-Normal operation, followed by rest in a protected shelter, from the
thirteenth day on.
-In all instances, make your exposures as brief as possible. Consider
only mandatory requirements as valid reasons for exposure. Decontaminate
at every stop.
The times given above are conservative. If forced to move after the first
or second day, you may do so, Make sure that the exposure is no longer
than absolutely necessary.
Water Procurement
In a fallout-contaminated area, available water sources may be
contaminated. If you wait at least 48 hours before drinking any water
to allow for radioactive decay to take place and select the safest possible
water source, you will greatly reduce the danger of ingesting harmful
amounts of radioactivity.
Although many factors (wind direction, rainfall, sediment) will influence
your choice in selecting water sources, consider the following
guidelines.
Safest Water Sources
Water from springs, wells, or other underground sources that undergo
natural filtration will be your safest source. Any water found in the
pipes or containers of abandoned houses or stores will also be free
from radioactive particles. This water will be safe to drink, although
you will have to take precautions against bacteria in the water.
Snow taken from 15 or more centimeters below the surface during the
fallout is also a safe source of water.
Streams and Rivers
Water from streams and rivers will be relatively free from fallout within
several days after the last nuclear explosion because of dilution. If at
all possible, filter such water before drinking to get rid of radioactive
particles. The best filtration method is to dig sediment holes or seepage
basins along the side of a water source. The water will seep laterally into
the hole through the intervening soil that acts as a filtering agent and
removes the contaminated fallout particles that settled on the original
body of water. This method can remove up to 99 percent of the radioactivity
in water. You must cover the hole in some way in order to prevent
further contamination. See Figure 6-9 on page 6-14 for an example of a
water filter.
Standing Water
Water from lakes, pools, ponds, and other standing sources is likely to
be heavily contaminated, though most of the heavier, long-lived radioactive
isotopes will settle to the bottom. Use the settling technique to
purify this water. First, fill a bucket or other deep container threefourths
full with contaminated water. Then take dirt from a depth of
10 or more centimeters below the ground surface and stir it into the
water. Use about 2.5 centimeters of dirt for every 10 centimeters of
water. Stir the water until you see most dirt particles suspended in the
water. Let the mixture settle for at least 6 hours. The settling dirt
particles will carry most of the suspended fallout particles to the bottom
and cover them. You can then dip out the clear water. Purify this water
using a filtration device.
Additional Precautions
As an additional precaution against disease, treat all water with water
purification tablets from your survival kit or boil it.
Food Procurement
Although it is a serious problem to obtain edible food in a radiation
contaminated area, it is not impossible to solve. You need to follow a
few special procedures in selecting and preparing rations and local foods
for use. Since secure packaging protects your combat rations, they will
be perfectly safe for use. Supplement your rations with any food you can
find on trips outside your shelter. Most processed foods you may find in
abandoned buildings are safe for use after decontaminating them. These
include canned and packaged foods after removing the containers or
wrappers or washing them free of fallout particles. These processed
foods also include food stored in any closed container and food stored in
protected areas (such as cellars), if you wash them before eating. Wash
all food containers or wrappers before handling them to prevent further
contamination.
If little or no processed food is available in your area, you may have to
supplement your diet with local food sources. Local food sources are
animals and plants.
Animals as a Food Source
Assume that all animals, regardless of their habitat or living conditions,
were exposed to radiation. The effects of radiation on animals are similar
to those on humans. Thus, most of the wild animals living in a fallout
area are likely to become sick or die from radiation during the first
month after the nuclear explosion. Even though animals may not be free
from harmful radioactive materials, you can and must use them in survival
conditions as a food source if other foods are not available. With
careful preparation and by following several important principles, animals
can be safe food sources.
First, do not eat an animal that appears to be sick. It may have developed
a bacterial infection as a result of radiation poisoning. Contaminated
meat, even if thoroughly cooked, could cause severe illness or
death if eaten.
Carefully skin all animals to prevent any radioactive particles on the
skin or fur from entering the body. Do not eat meat close to the bones
and joints as an animal’s skeleton contains over 90 percent of the
radioactivity. The remaining animal muscle tissue, however, will be safe to
eat. Before cooking it, cut the meat away from the bone, leaving at least
a 3-millimeter thickness of meat on the bone. Discard all internal organs
(heart, liver, and kidneys) since they tend to concentrate beta and
gamma radioactivity.
Cook all meat until it is very well done. To be sure the meat is well
done, cut it into less than 13-millimeter-thick pieces before cooking.
Such cuts will also reduce cooking time and save fuel.
The extent of contamination in fish and aquatic animals will be much
greater than that of land animals. This is also true for water plants,
especially in coastal areas. Use aquatic food sources only in conditions
of extreme emergency.
All eggs, even if laid during the period of fallout, will be safe to eat.
Completely avoid milk from any animals in a fallout area because animals
absorb large amounts of radioactivity from the plants they eat.
Plants as a Food Source
Plant contamination occurs by the accumulation of fallout on their outer
surfaces or by absorption of radioactive elements through their roots.
Your first choice of plant food should be vegetables such as potatoes,
turnips, carrots, and other plants whose edible portion grows underground.
These are the safest to eat once you scrub them and remove
their skins.
Second in order of preference are those plants with edible parts that you
can decontaminate by washing and peeling their outer surfaces. Examples
are bananas, apples, tomatoes, prickly pears, and other such fruits
and vegetables.
Any smooth-skinned vegetable, fruit, or plant that you cannot easily
peel or effectively decontaminate by washing will be your third choice
of emergency food.
The effectiveness of decontamination by scrubbing is inversely proportional
to the roughness of the fruit’s surface. Smooth-surfaced fruits
have lost 90 percent of their contamination after washing, while washing
rough-surfaced plants removes only about 50 percent of the
contamination.
You eat rough-surfaced plants (such as lettuce) only as a last resort
because you cannot effectively decontaminate them by peeling or
washing. Other difficult foods to decontaminate by washing with water
includedried fruits (figs, prunes, peaches, apricots, pears) and
soya beans.
In general, you can use any plant food that is ready for harvest if you
can effectively decontaminate it. Growing plants, however, can absorb
some radioactive materials through their leaves as well as from the soil,
especially if rains have occurred during or after the fallout period.
Avoid using these plants for food except in an emergency.
The use of biological agents is real. Prepare yourself for survival by
being proficient in the tasks identified in your Soldier’s Manuals of
Common Tasks (SMCTs). Know what to do to protect yourself against
these agents.
Biological Agents and Effects
Biological agents are microorganisms that can cause disease among
personnel, animals, or plants. They can also cause the deterioration
of material. These agents fall into two broad categories-pathogens
(usually called germs) and toxins. Pathogens are living microorganisms
that cause lethal or incapacitating diseases. Bacteria, rickettsiae, fungi,
and viruses are included in the pathogens. Toxins are poisons that plants,
animals, or microorganisms produce naturally. Possible biological warfare
toxins include a variety of neurotoxic (affecting the central nervous
system) and cytotoxic (causing cell death) compounds.
Germs
Germs are living organisms. Some nations have used them in the past
as weapons. Only a few germs can start an infection, especially if
inhaled into the lungs. Because germs are so small and weigh so little,
the wind can spread them over great distances; they can also enter
unfiltered or nonairtight places. Buildings and bunkers can trap them
thus causing a higher concentration. Germs do not affect the body
immediately. They must multiply inside the body and overcome the
body’s defenses—a process called the incubation period. Incubation
periods vary from several hours to several months, depending on the
germ. Most germs must live within another living organism (host), such
as your body, to survive and grow. Weather conditions such as wind,
rain, cold, and sunlight rapidly kill germs.
Some germs can form protective shells, or spores, to allow survival
outside the host. Spore-producing agents are a long-term hazard you
must neutralize by decontaminating infected areas or personnel. Fortunately,
most live agents are not spore-producing. These agents must find
a host within roughly a day of their delivery or they die. Germs have
three basic routes of entry into your body: through the respiratory tract,
through a break in the skin, and through the digestive tract. Symptoms
of infection vary according to the disease.
Toxins
Toxins are substances that plants, animals, or germs produce naturally.
These toxins are what actually harm man, not bacteria. Botulin, which
produces botulism, is an example. Modern science has allowed
large-scale production of these toxins without the use of the germ
that produces the toxin. Toxins may produce effects similar to those
of chemical agents. Toxic victims may not, however, respond to first aid
measures used against chemical agents. Toxins enter the body in the
same manner as germs. However, some toxins, unlike germs, can penetrate
unbroken skin. Symptoms appear almost immediately, since there
is no incubation period. Many toxins are extremely lethal, even in very
small doses. Symptoms may include any of the following:
-Dizziness.
-Mental confusion.
-Blurred or double vision.
-Numbness or tingling of skin.
-Paralysis.
-Convulsions.
-Rashes or blisters.
-Coughing.
-Fever.
-Aching muscles.
-Tiredness.
-Nausea, vomiting, and/or diarrhea.
-Bleeding from body openings.
-Blood in urine, stool, or saliva.
-Shock.
-Death.
Detection of Biological Agents
Biological agents are, by nature, difficult to detect. You cannot detect
them by any of the five physical senses. Often, the first sign of a
biological agent will be symptoms of the victims exposed to the agent. Your
best chance of detecting biological agents before they can affect you is
to recognize their means of delivery. The three main means of delivery
are—
-Bursting-type munitions. These may be bombs or projectiles whose
burst causes very little damage. The burst will produce a small cloud
of liquid or powder in the immediate impact area. This cloud will
disperse eventually; the rate of dispersion depends on terrain and
weather conditions.
-Spray tanks or generators. Aircraft or vehicle spray tanks or
ground-level aerosol generators produce an aerosol cloud of
biological agents.
-Vectors. Insects such as mosquitoes, fleas, lice, and ticks deliver
pathogens. Large infestations of these insects may indicate the use
of biological agents.
Another sign of a possible biological attack is the presence of unusual
substances on the ground or on vegetation, or sick-looking plants, crops,
or animals.
Influence of Weather and Terrain
Your knowledge of how weather and terrain affect the agents can help
you avoid contamination by biological agents. Major weather factors that
affect biological agents are sunlight, wind, and precipitation. Aerosol
sprays will tend to concentrate in low areas of terrain, similar to early
morning mist.
Sunlight contains visible and ultraviolet solar radiation that rapidly kills
most germs used as biological agents. However, natural or man-made
cover may protect some agents from sunlight. Other man-made mutant
strains of germs may be resistant to sunlight.
High wind speeds increase the dispersion of biological agents, dilute
their concentration, and dehydrate them. The further downwind the
agent travels, the less effective it becomes due to dilution and death of
the pathogens. However, the downwind hazard area of the biological
agent is significant and you cannot ignore it.
Precipitation in the form of moderate to heavy rain tends to wash biological
agents out of the air, reducing downwind hazard areas. However,
the agents may still be very effective where they were deposited on the
ground.
Protection Against Biological Agents
While you must maintain a healthy respect for biological agents, there is
no reason for you to panic. You can reduce your susceptibility to biological
agents by maintaining current immunizations, avoiding contaminated
areas, and controlling rodents and pests. You must also use proper first
aid measures in the treatment of wounds and only safe or properly
decontaminated sources of food and water. You must ensure that you
get enough sleep to prevent a run-down condition. You must always use
proper field sanitation procedures.
Assuming you do not have a protective mask, always try to keep your
face covered with some type of cloth to protect yourself against biological
agent aerosols. Dust may contain biological agents; wear some type
of mask when dust is in the air.
Your uniform and gloves will protect you against bites from vectors
(mosquitoes and ticks) that carry diseases. Completely button your
clothing and tuck your trousers tightly into your boots. Wear a chemical
protective overgarment, if available, as it provides better protection than
normal clothing. Covering your skin will also reduce the chance of the
agent entering your body through cuts or scratches. Always practice high
standards of personal hygiene and sanitation to help prevent the spread
of vectors.
Bathe with soap and water whenever possible. Use germicidal soap, if
available. Wash your hair and body thoroughly, and clean under your
fingernails. Clean teeth, gums, tongue, and the roof of your mouth frequently.
Wash your clothing in hot, soapy water if you can. If you cannot
wash your clothing, lay it out in an area of bright sunlight and allow the
light to kill the microorganisms. After a toxin attack, decontaminate
yourself as if for a chemical attack using the M258A2 kit (if available)
or by washing with soap and water.
Shelter
You can build expedient shelters under biological contamination conditions
using the same techniques described in Chapter 5. However, you
must make slight changes to reduce the chance of biological contamination.
Do not build your shelter in depressions in the ground. Aerosol
sprays tend to concentrate in these depressions. Avoid building your
shelter in areas of vegetation, as vegetation provides shade and some
degree of protection to biological agents. Avoid using vegetation in
constructing your shelter. Place your shelter’s entrance at a 90-degree angle
to the prevailing winds. Such placement will limit the entry of airborne
agents and prevent air stagnation in your shelter. Always keep your
shelter clean.
Water Procurement
Water procurement under biological conditions is difficult but not impossible.
Whenever possible, try to use water that has been in a sealed container.
You can assume that the water inside the sealed container is not
contaminated. Wash the water container thoroughly with soap and water
or boil it for at least 10 minutes before breaking the seal.
If water in sealed containers is not available, your next choice, only under
emergency conditions, is water from springs. Again, boil the water for at
least 10 minutes before drinking. Keep the water covered while boiling
to prevent contamination by airborne pathogens. Your last choice, only in
an extreme emergency, is to use standing water. Vectors and germs can
survive easily in stagnant water. Boil this water as long as practical to
kill all organisms. Filter this water through a cloth to remove the dead
vectors. Use water purification tablets in all cases.
Food Procurement
Food procurement, like water procurement, is not impossible, but you
must take special precautions. Your combat rations are sealed, and you
can assume they are not contaminated. You can also assume that sealed
containers or packages of processed food are safe. To ensure safety,
decontaminate all food containers by washing with soap and water or by
boiling the container in water for 10 minutes.
You consider supplementing your rations with local plants or animals only in
extreme emergencies. No matter what you do to prepare the food, there is
no guarantee that cooking will kill all the biological agents. Use local
food only in life or death situations. Remember, you can survive for a
long time without food, especially if the food you eat may kill you!
If you must use local food, select only healthy-looking plants and animals.
Do not select known carriers of vectors such as rats or other
vermin. Select and prepare plants as you would in radioactive areas.
Prepare animals as you do plants. Always use gloves and protective
clothing when handling animals or plants. Cook all plant and animal
food by boiling only. Boil all food for at least 10 minutes to kill all
pathogens. Do not try to fry, bake, or roast local food. There is no guarantee
that all infected portions have reached the required temperature
to kill all pathogens. Do not eat raw food.
Chemical agent warfare is real. It can create extreme problems in a
survival situation, but you can overcome the problems with the proper
equipment, knowledge, and training. As a survivor, your first line of
defense against chemical agents is your proficiency in individual nuclear,
biological, and chemical (NBC) training, to include donning and wearing
the protective mask and overgarment, personal decontamination, recognition
of chemical agent symptoms, and individual first aid for chemical
agent contamination. The SMCTs cover these subjects. If you are not
proficient in these skills, you will have little chance of surviving a
chemical environment.
The subject matter covered below is not a substitute for any of the individual
tasks in which you must be proficient. The SMCTs address the
various chemical agents, their effects, and first aid for these agents. The
following information is provided under the assumption that you are
proficient in the use of chemical protective equipment and know the
symptoms of various chemical agents.
Detection of Chemical Agents
The best method for detecting chemical agents is the use of a chemical
agent detector. If you have one, use it. However, in a survival situation,
you will most likely have to rely solely on the use of all of your physical
senses. You must be alert and able to detect any clues indicating the use
of chemical warfare. General indicators of the presence of chemical
agents are tears, difficult breathing, choking, itching, coughing, and
dizziness. With agents that are very hard to detect, you must watch for
symptoms in fellow survivors. Your surroundings will provide valuable
clues to the presence of chemical agents; for example, dead animals, sick
people, or people and animals displaying abnormal behavior.
Your sense of smell may alert you to some chemical agents, but most
will be odorless. The odor of newly cut grass or hay may indicate the
presence of choking agents. A smell of almonds may indicate blood
agents.
Sight will help you detect chemical agents. Most chemical agents in the
solid or liquid state have some color. In the vapor state, you can see
some chemical agents as a mist or thin fog immediately after the bomb
or shell bursts. By observing for symptoms in others and by observing
delivery means, you may be able to have some warning of chemical
agents. Mustard gas in the liquid state will appear as oily patches on
leaves or on buildings.
The sound of enemy munitions will give some clue to the presence
of chemical weapons. Muffled shell or bomb detonations are a good
indicator.
Irritation in the nose or eyes or on the skin is an urgent warning to
protect your body from chemical agents. Additionally, a strange taste
in food, water, or cigarettes may serve as a warning that they have
been contaminated.
Protection Against Chemical Agents
As a survivor, always use the following general steps, in the order listed,
to protect yourself from a chemical attack:
-Use protective equipment.
-Give quick and correct self-aid when contaminated.
-Avoid areas where chemical agents exist.
-Decontaminate your equipment and body as soon as possible.
Your protective mask and overgarment are the key to your survival.
Without these, you stand very little chance of survival. You must take
care of these items and protect them from damage. You must practice
and know correct self-aid procedures before exposure to chemical
agents. The detection of chemical agents and the avoidance of contaminated
areas is extremely important to your survival. Use whatever
detection kits may be available to help in detection. Since you are in a
survival situation, avoid contaminated areas at all costs. You can expect
no help should you become contaminated. If you do become contaminated,
decontaminate yourself as soon as possible using proper
procedures.
Shelter
If you find yourself in a contaminated area, try to move out of the area
as fast as possible. Travel crosswind or upwind to reduce the time spent
in the downwind hazard area. If you cannot leave the area immediately
and have to build a shelter, use normal shelter construction techniques,
with a few changes. Build the shelter in a clearing, away from all
vegetation. Remove all topsoil in the area of the shelter to decontaminate
the area. Keep the shelter’s entrance closed and oriented at a 90-degree
angle to the prevailing wind. Do not build a fire using contaminated
wood—the smoke will be toxic. Use extreme caution when entering your
shelter so that you will not bring contamination inside.
Water Procurement
As with biological and nuclear environments, getting water in a chemical
environment is difficult. Obviously, water in sealed containers is your
best and safest source. You must protect this water as much as possible.
Be sure to decontaminate the containers before opening.
If you cannot get water in sealed containers, try to get it from a closed
source such as underground water pipes. You may use rainwater or snow
if there is no evidence of contamination. Use water from slow-moving
streams, if necessary, but always check first for signs of contamination,
and always filter the water as described under nuclear conditions. Signs
of water source contamination are foreign odors such as garlic, mustard,
geranium, or bitter almonds; oily spots on the surface of the water or
nearby; and the presence of dead fish or animals. If these signs are
present, do not use the water. Always boil or purify the water to
prevent bacteriological infection.
Food Procurement
It is extremely difficult to eat while in a contaminated area. You will
have to break the seal on your protective mask to eat. If you eat, find
an area in which you can safely unmask.
The safest source of food is your sealed combat rations. Food in sealed
cans or bottles will also be safe. Decontaminate all sealed food
containers before opening, otherwise you will contaminate the food.
If you must supplement your combat rations with local plants or animals,
do not use plants from contaminated areas or animals that appear to be
sick. When handling plants or animals, always use protective gloves and
clothing.
Previous Chapter - 22
Next Chapter - Appendix A
